Measuring electricity-related GHG emissions and the affordability of electricity in Malaysian low-cost housing: A case study of low-cost housing projects in Kuala Lumpur

摘要

Malaysia is yet to establish any mandatory energy efficiency or energy performance building code. In the absence of such legislation, the Malaysian residential sector is likely locking-in inefficiency for decades into the future. This research focuses on the public low-cost housing typology (PPR), as the least environmentally researched typology, and has high potential for policy improvements as it is nationally administrated and is a required provision for all new housing developments. A project-specific baseline was developed for the first time in Malaysia using the UNEP-SCI’s Common Carbon Metric (CCM). The CCM tool provides an internationally comparable baseline that is consistent with the measurable, reportable and verifiable (MRV) framework for GHG emisssions reporting, therefore was adopted for this research. A case study was conducted to investigate energy performance and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from building operation of two PPR in Kuala Lumpur. The CCM converted utilized electricity bills collected from the National Energy Provider Company (Tenaga Nasional Berhad) and presented GHG emissions of the sample (383 units) using a bottom-up approach, and the PPR ‘building stock’ in Kuala Lumpur (27,102 units) using a top-down approach. Findings suggest that the average household’s electricity consumption was relatively higher than benchmarks set by World Energy Council and the International Energy Agency. The importance of this research lies in generating a measured baseline of electricity consumption and GHG emissions of low-cost urban housing in Malaysia. This research also provided an indicative report on the affordability of electricity for low-income households, as Malaysian low-cost housing is defined solely on sale price and/or monthly rental. Affordability of electricity is important due to issues such as energy poverty, access to energy and the rebound effect. Therefore, investigating percentage of monthly household income spent on electricity and other utilities helps measure operational and long term affordability of PPRs. A survey questionnaire was conducted in two PPR to investigate operational costs of rent, electricity and water, and to measure end-use electricity consumption patterns in terms of average operating time of electrical appliances. Examining end-use electricity consumption patterns was helpful in identifying the typology’s energy profile and determining its energy savings potential. The research findings determined which characteristics of the building design can be improved based on electricity consumption data for thermal comfort, lighting and appliances. This research presents for the first time building energy performance data for this typology that is consistent with measurable, reportable and verifiable requirements. Its focus on a developing country experiencing rapid urbanisation gives broader relevance to both research design and methodology, and recommendations for policy makers in Malaysia and South East Asia.