Energy Master Planning for Resilient Public Communities: Best Practices from Denmark

摘要

When the oil embargo of 1973 occurred, Denmark, which until that time was totally dependent on imported oil, initiated a long-term energy policy with the support of a solid majority in the Danish Parliament that encouraged and adopted resil-ient and cost-effective energy solutions for the country as a whole. The Electricity and Heat Supply Acts of 1980 started a program of nationwide energy planning that aimed to replace oil and to cost-effectively improve the country's energy resil-iency and energy efficiency.The planning methodology took a team approach that involved the national energy Ministry, regions, and local authorities and utilities, and that established a playing field for regulated competition between the energy infrastructures of district heating and natural gas. In other words, Danish energy infrastructure was redeveloped as if Denmark were a campus.As a natural result of this "campus approach, " 100% of all investments in the infrastructure have been financed with the most competitive financing on the world market. Also, the power system, which is owned by state and consumer cooper-atives, has been transitioning from centralized to local power generation; the use of underground electrical transmission and distribution cables has created one of the world's most reliable power sectors. Thus, emergency generators are only used for critical facilities. This process has helped create an environment that fosters innovation in state-of-the-art tech-nologies and architectural design, which contribute to the International Energy Agency's "Energy in Buildings and Communities Program Annex 73, " which focuses on develop-ing guidelines and tools that support the planning of net zero energy resilient public communities and research performed under the Environmental Security Technology CertificationProgram (ESTCP) project EW18-D1-5281, "Technologies Integration to Achieve Resilient, Low-Energy Military Instal-lations. "Four case studies illustrate this transition taking the first steps toward net zero resilient energy:1.Case Study 1: The Greater Copenhagen district heating system, which supplies heat, 95% of which is generated from sustainable biomass-fired combined heat and power (CHP) plants and from waste for energy plants to an area of 754 million ft~2 (70 million m~2) heated floor area. Ninety-nine percent of the heated floor area in Copenhagen is connected to the network.2.Case Study 2: The municipality of Taarnby, which uses optimal zoning of district heating and natural gas and a notable project in which heat pumps, 1222 tons cooling/ 22.2 MMBtu/h heating (4.3 MW cooling/6.5 MW heat) are used to integrate district heating and cooling, chilled-water storage, wastewater, and ground-source cooling.3.Case Study 3: The Technical University Campus in greater Copenhagen, which has established an infra-structure for heating and cooling in symbiosis with 33 MW gas-fired combined cycle (CC) CHP, 136.49 MMBtu/h (40 MW) electric boiler, and combined heating and cooling.4.Case Study 4: A typical district heating system or a campus supplied by a gas-fueled CHP plant, an electric boiler, a large heat pump, large-scale solar heating, and a heat storage facility that offers demand response to the power system for efficient integration of fluctuating wind and solar energy.In this paper we will briefly describe the Danish legal framework for the heating sector and how it is administrated by local communities with the aim to meet the objectives in the most cost-effective way. The four case studies illustrate how the policy has been implemented to the benefit of the society and the consumers. The tradition of cooperation, consumer empowerment, and commitment from the cities has developed the district heating and cooling infrastructure in such a way that it is almost as if Denmark is one single campus.