Pharmacokinetics of tramadol in bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

摘要

Little research has been performed examining pain control in birds. Tramadol, a relatively new drug, provides analgesia by opioid (mu), serotonin, and norepinephrine pathways, with minimal adverse effects. One study suggests a predominance of kappa receptors in the forebrain of pigeons, while another suggests that both mu and kappa receptors participate in analgesia in chickens. No research detailing the distribution and role of opioid receptors in the brain of raptors or psittacines is currently available. Tramadol is not currently controlled, is inexpensive, and is available in an oral form.