Thermal momentum in thermodynamics - Part 2. Interfacial electrification: A new consequence of the first and second laws

摘要

In Part 1, a thermodynamic generalization of the Maxwell-Einstein diffusion farce was formulated for single- and certain multiple-component systems. In such systems, at nearly all interfaces, this force is highly significant, wen at equilibrium, Based on the first and second laws, the present paper presents two independent methods to calculate at equilibrium the difference in the entropy Delta s per particle, across an interface. One method is new. It uses the diffusion and other motive forces at that interface. The other method is classical. Thus, it excludes all such forces. Equating the two expressions for Delta s leads to a novel, fundamental result: Under certain conditions satisfied at almost all interfaces, there have to exist at such sites significant forces characterized by action-at-a-distance and other properties uniquely peculiar to electricity. This interesting result follows from consequences of incorporating into thermodynamics the particle thermal momentum rate of change. To be discussed then are some diverse phenomena together with pictures of experimental results, all of which confirm the existence of this thermodynamically required property of electrification of surfaces, membranes, and other interfaces. [References: 33]