Combat weaponry, including elaborate horns and antlers and complex dentition, evolved independently several times among mammals. While it is evident that tusk and tusk-like dentition have emerged primarily among males for intrasexual combat, it is unclear what ecological factors favor the retention or re-evolution of tusks. We investigated patterns of tusk evolution in artiodactyls while exploring specific ecological factors that might favor their use over other cranial weapons (e.g., antlers, horns). We show that among males, small (<15 kg), solitary species tend to retain well-developed canines, and more solitary species live in more closed habitats. These results suggest that tusks are a better weapon option for smaller, slinking artiodactyls in forested environments with low visibility, whereas larger taxa living in more open environment can bear the cost of elaborate headgear and are better served by communicating across distances an honest signal of fighting ability. Small species in dense habitats may also be more likely to be ambushed by predators and have a need to defend themselves; small, slicing daggers may be a better defensive weapon and allow more maneuverability and faster escape than cumbersome headgear in densely vegetated habitats.
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