Intelligence Organizations and the Organization of Intelligence

摘要

A puzzling aspect of many successful surprise attacks in modern warfare is that, after the attack, the defender discovered that it had already possessed, before the attack, substantial information suggesting that an attack was on the way. Among such "intelligence failures" are the German invasions of France and Norway in 1940 and the Soviet Union in 1941, the Japanese attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor in 1941, the German attack on British and American forces in the Ardenne in 1944 in the Battle of the Bulge, the Tet Offensive by the North Vietnamese andrnViet Cong against American and South Vietnamese forces in 1968, and the Egyptian attack on Israeli forces in the Sinai in 1973.