In 2007 a Russian-led polar expedition, descending through the icy waters of the Arctic Ocean in a Mir submarine, planted a titanium Russian tricolour on the sea bed 4km (2.5 miles) beneath the North Pole. "The Arctic has always been Russian," declared Artur Chilingarov, one of the polar explorers. In the event, fears that the action would set off a scramble for Arctic territory and riches proved unfounded. Over the next few years the Arctic Council (a talking shop for governments with territories inside the Arctic Circle, and others who attend as observers) became much more influential and one of the few remaining border disputes there (between Norway and Russia) was settled.
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