Transformation of coastal wetland agriculture and livelihoods in Kerala, India.

摘要

Wetland agricultural systems are characterized by diverse livelihood strategies. In the context of wetland agricultural systems in Kerala, India, livelihood strategies are also experiencing significant change. The thesis attempts to describe the historical and current resource use and the livelihood strategies of wetland agriculture landowners and labourers (male and female) and to describe the drivers of change in those livelihoods. The objectives are: (1) to describe historical and current resource use and livelihood activities of wetland agriculture landowners and labourers, and (2) to analyze and explain the transformation from traditional rice-shrimp rotational cropping system to a monoculture of shrimp.;Interviews and focus group discussions suggested that pokkali rice cultivation is on the decline and monoculture shrimp farms are on the rise. The statements from the pokkali labourers strongly suggest that shrimp aquaculture has induced pressures on the age-old rice-fish/shrimp system. Pokkali labourers who cannot afford to invest in monoculture business are against conversion to monoculture. Dependence on one livelihood for many years has decreased diversity in choosing livelihood options and increased vulnerability. The minimal interaction of government, coupled with the failure of Samajams (agricultural associations) to address the problems faced during pokkali rice cultivation, has created a change in the society.;In Kerala, various forces of change are impacting the livelihood strategies of wetland agriculture labourers. In the study area the traditional rice fields are being transformed into monoculture shrimp farms due to economic pressures. Due to the growth of globalized markets for high value shrimp species, such as Penaeus indicus and Penaeus monodon, this has resulted in pressures on the traditional system. Many landowners have either converted to shrimp aquaculture, or are considering converting. In the two study communities, the shrimp landowners cultivate shrimp as year round monoculture without license from the state government and they operate alongside the other community that practices licensed seasonal shrimp farming. This study highlights the livelihood strategies of pokkali landowners and labourers, their income and investments, the problems associated with rice-shrimp farming and the coping strategies due to change in farming practices. It also highlights the factors that were responsible for the transformation to shrimp monoculture and its implications for environment, economy and and community.;These objectives were addressed primarily through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, participant observation and other participatory methods with wetland agriculture farmers. The focus of the research was in Khuzupilly, on the island of Vypin in the Cochin area of Kerala, India. Traditionally, the people of Khuzupilly practiced a low-intensity rice-shrimp rotational cropping system on Cochin estuary and lagoon (locally known as "Backwaters"). Rice (salt-resistant Pokkali rice variety) is cultivated for six months of the year (May to October), and shrimp is cultivated in the same agricultural fields in the subsequent six months (November to April). The fields were naturally "seeded" with shrimp by opening sluice gates that allowed juvenile shrimp to enter through tidal action from natural canals. The research group consisted of two communities: one community that practices traditional rice-shrimp rotational cropping system (Puthen Padam) and the other community that practices monoculture of shrimp, which formerly practiced rice-shrimp rotational cropping system (31 Block). The bulk of the interviews were conducted with pokkali landowners, male and female labourers, land leasers, shrimp landowners and government officials.