Learner self-regulation in distance eduation: A cross cultural study.

摘要

Learning at a distance requires more self-direction and autonomy since the bulk of the responsibility for learning is transferred to the learner. However, not all learners are able or willing to handle this burden, which results in dropping out from the system or silently struggling to regulate their learning process. Individuals are products of their social system (Bandura 2001). Consequently, their internal mechanisms such as self-regulation are expected to be orchestrated by environmental events and dominant cultural systems of practice (Kitayama, 2002). Systematic variations between cultures are expected as well as variations in the degree of individual consciousness about their value orientation (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). This either facilitates or impedes the learning process. This study investigated cultural variations between two samples of Arab and American distance learners. The overarching purpose of this study was to explore the underlying relationship between learner self-regulation, cultural orientation and learner preference towards course interaction and flexibility. In this research, culture viewed as a dynamic process that is internalized by the individual. Cultural orientation was measured through variables in relation to time (future time orientation), structure (uncertainty avoidance), authority (power distance), and relation (interdependence). Learner self-regulation was measured through six variables representing metacognitive and motivational aspects of self-regulation. These variables were planning, self-checking, effort, self-efficacy, help-seeking, and time and environment management. The validity of cross-cultural comparisons was established using back-translation and multiple group confirmatory factor analysis. Construct, method and item equivalence were established for all research constructs.;Power distance and future orientation, two cultural variables, were found to be unreliable and were therefore excluded from further analysis in the study. Other variables indicated acceptable reliability and equivalent factor structure for both groups. After listwise deletion, the final analysis was based on an equivalent sample of 95 cases from each group. Results suggest significant differences between Arab and American distance learners in the way they regulate their learning, in their cultural orientation towards time and group interdependence, and in their preferences towards course structure and interaction with instructors. American students scored significantly higher than Arab students on planning, monitoring, effort, time and environment management and self-efficacy, while Arab students scored significantly higher than American students on help. American students scored significantly higher than the Arabs on both group interdependence and future orientation. While it was expected that American students will be more future oriented, it was surprising to find that there also were more group interdependence. Arab students preferred significantly higher structure and more interaction with their instructors than American students.;Using structural equation modeling, the relationship between cultural and self-regulation variables was investigated. In the best fitting model, only future orientation explained variances in self-regulation. Group interdependence was not found to be significant and was excluded from further analysis. In this model, self-regulation was subdivided into two factors (1) metacognition consisting of planning, monitoring, and time and environment management, and (2) motivation consisting of effort and self-efficacy. Help was not found to be measurement invariant across the two groups. Americans did not conceptualize help as part of their self-regulation whereas Arabs did. The final model without help was found to be invariant across the two groups.;Results were inconclusive when adding variables of course structure and interaction, years and gender to the model. Some fit indices indicated unacceptable fit and some of the components of the model were insignificant. However, these results suggested group by gender interaction on metacognition. This was tested for through MANOVA. Results suggest that Arab males and American females scored higher on metacognition than Arab females and American males.