Protected areas, poverty and conflicts: a livelihood case study of Mikumi National Park, Tanzania.

摘要

This paper investigates livelihoods of communities around Mikumi, Tanzania's fourth largest national park, and impacts of living close to the park. People are very poor in the area, also beyond the areas close to the park. The average income is around 0.45 USD per person per day. People report food shortages in two out of the last five years. Even "the least poor group" earns no more than an average of 2 USD/cap and day. Main incomes (80%) are derived from agriculture and non-farm incomes. There is a differential diversification pattern where poor people depend more on selling their labour within agriculture, while the less poor group depends more on non-farm activities. Environmental (forest and natural resources) incomes are low, compared to what is typically found in such rural areas, making up 6.3% of total incomes. Living close to the park incurs costs in the range of 2 to 20% of total household incomes, mainly through wildlife raiding crops and livestock; the scale depending on village location. The study documents that attempts to reduce tensions between local people and the park through outreach activities yield negligible results compared to the costs people incur, and do little to reduce the conflict-ridden park-people relations. Although the park may not necessarily be a "poverty trap", it must be seen as yet another and substantial constraint for people securing their livelihoods. Increasing land scarcity, population densities, income inequalities all imply mounting pressures that aggravate resource use conflicts. Furthermore, the present situation with external political interference in selection and implementation of outreach activities is not conducive to progress. Given that 24% of Tanzania consists of wildlife protected areas, much more focused, rights-based and location specific approaches should be developed to reduce losses, and to secure local people's rights to income from the parks and due compensation for accrued costs. People should have formal rights to access park resources that can be subjected to controlled, sustainable harvesting. The present park management culture in terms of attitudes, values and norms needs to change through training in how to work with local people. Such interventions would help reduce conflict levels.Digital Object Identifier http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2012.01.008