Integrating copper toxicity and climate change to understand extinction risk to two species of pond-breeding anurans

摘要

Chemical contamination is often suggested as an important contributing factor to amphibian population declines, but direct links are rarely reported. Population modeling provides a quantitative method to integrate toxicity data with demographic data to understand the long-term effects of contaminants on population persistence. In this study we use laboratory-derived embryo and larval toxicity data for two anuran species to investigate the potential for toxicity to contribute to population declines. We use the southern toad (Anaxyrus terrestris) and the southern leopard frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus) as model species to investigate copper (Cu) toxicity. We use matrix models to project populations through time and quantify extinction risk (the probability of quasi-extinction in 35 yr). Life-history parameters for toads and frogs were obtained from previously published literature or unpublished data from a long-term (>35 yr) data set. In addition to Cu toxicity, we investigate the role of climate change on amphibian populations by including the probability of early pond drying that results in catastrophic reproductive failure (CRF, i.e., complete mortality of all larval individuals). Our models indicate that CRF is an important parameter for both species as both were unable to persist when CRF probability was >50% for toads or 40% for frogs. Copper toxicity alone did not result in significant effects on extinction risk unless toxicity was very high (>50% reduction in survival parameters). For toads, Cu toxicity and high probability of CRF both resulted in high extinction risk but no synergistic (or greater than additive) effects between the two stressors occurred. For leopard frogs, in the absence of CRF survival was high even under Cu toxicity, but with CRF Cu toxicity increased extinction risk. Our analyses highlight the importance of considering multiple stressors as well as species differences in response to those stressors. Our models were consistently most sensitive to juvenile and adult survival, further suggesting the importance of terrestrial stages to population persistence. Future models will incorporate multiple wetlands with different combinations of stressors to understand if our results for a single wetland result in a population sink within the landscape.