Connecting Race and Place: A County-Level Analysis of White, Black, and Hispanic HIV Prevalence, Poverty, and Level of Urbanization

摘要

Objectives. We evaluated the role of poverty in racial/ethnic disparities in HIV prevalence across levels of urbanization. Methods. Using national HIV surveillance data from the year 2009, we constructed negative binomial models, stratified by urbanization, with an outcome of race-specific, county-level HIV prevalence rates and covariates of race/ethnicity, poverty, and other publicly available data. We estimated model-based Black–White and Hispanic–White prevalence rate ratios (PRRs) across levels of urbanization and poverty. Results. We observed racial/ethnic disparities for all strata of urbanization across 1111 included counties. Poverty was associated with HIV prevalence only in major metropolitan counties. At the same level of urbanization, Black–White and Hispanic–White PRRs were not statistically different from 1.0 at high poverty rates (Black–White PRR?=?1.0, 95% confidence interval [CI]?=?0.4, 2.9; Hispanic–White PRR?=?0.4, 95% CI?=?0.1, 1.6). In nonurban counties, racial/ethnic disparities remained after we controlled for poverty. Conclusions. The association between HIV prevalence and poverty varies by level of urbanization. HIV prevention interventions should be tailored to this understanding. Reducing racial/ethnic disparities will require multifactorial interventions linking social factors with sexual networks and individual risks. Within the United States, disparities in diagnosed HIV prevalence among the 3 major racial/ethnic groups (White, Black, and Hispanic) are striking. At the end of 2009, 43% of people living with an HIV diagnosis were Black, 35% White, and 19% Hispanic. 1 Concurrently, Blacks constituted only 12% of the population, non-Hispanic Whites 65%, and Hispanics 16%. 2 In the 46 states with confidential name-based HIV reporting since at least January 2007, the estimated diagnosed HIV prevalence rate at the end of 2009 was 952 per 100?000 people among Blacks (near the threshold for a generalized epidemic), 1 320 per 100?000 among Hispanics, and 144 per 100?000 among Whites; compared with Whites, therefore, Blacks and Hispanics were respectively 6.6 times and 2.2 times more likely to be living with an HIV diagnosis. A number of mechanisms, primarily structural and social factors, have been proposed to explain these stark racial/ethnic disparities in HIV prevalence. 3,4 Structural factors, such as oppression and mistrust in government, may hinder receptivity to prevention outreach and increase HIV prevalence. 3 Social constructs (e.g., homophobia and HIV stigma) may discourage open discussion of risk behaviors and limit HIV testing and treatment. Additionally, limited access to health care resources has been identified as a key driver of racial/ethnic health disparities. 5 Finally, Black men are more likely than White men to be both incarcerated and infected with HIV while incarcerated. 6,7 All of these factors are, in turn, associated with poverty. 8 However, specific relationships among these multiple factors and racial/ethnic HIV prevalence disparities, and variation of these relationships across levels of urbanization, are not well understood. Previous analyses of national surveillance and survey data in the United States have focused on associations between HIV prevalence rates, poverty, and race exclusively in urban areas, finding no disparities in poverty-adjusted HIV prevalence rates among heterosexuals in urban settings. 9,10 Furthermore, among heterosexuals living in US urban areas with high AIDS prevalence, HIV prevalence rates among those living at or below the poverty line were 2.2 times as high as rates among those living above the poverty line. 10 A more recent analysis of US surveillance data confirmed the complex associations between demographics, social determinants of health, and AIDS diagnosis rates. 8 However, variation in these factors across the urban–rural continuum may limit generalizability of these findings to nonurban settings, where similar research is lacking. In 2009, the proportions of Black and Hispanic Americans living in poverty were roughly twice that of White Americans. 11 For all races/ethnicities, the proportion living in poverty is greater in rural areas than in urban areas. 12 Additionally, rural areas, with lower HIV prevalence, are more likely to be medically underserved, with reduced access to HIV care and treatment. 13 In the context of these complex sociodemographic associations, previously observed associations in the United States between poverty and racial/ethnic disparities in HIV may differ outside of urban areas. Therefore, using publicly available county-level data, we first describe the association between poverty and HIV prevalence by race/ethnicity across levels of urbanization. We subsequently examine racial/ethnic disparities in HIV prevalence across levels of urbanization, after controlling for poverty. We hypothesized that, in all strata of urbanization, poverty-adjusted Black–White and Hispanic–White HIV prevalence ra