Reversed parasite-mediated selection in sticklebacks from eutrophied habitats

摘要

Sexual selection is often assumed to increase the viability of populations by increasing the quality of offspring produced. Presently, human-induced environmental changes are altering the process of sexual selection by influencing male–male interactions and female mate choice. Here, we show that increased density of filamentous algae due to eutrophication reverses parasite-mediated selection during reproduction in threespine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). When we manipulated the density of artificial algae in a breeding area in the Baltic Sea, more males nested in dense than in sparse vegetation, but the males in dense vegetation were more parasitized. Interestingly, heavily parasitized males acquired more eggs than less parasitized males in dense vegetation but not in sparse vegetation. The higher probability of reproduction for parasitized males in dense algae growth could be due to impaired visibility relaxing male–male competition or reducing female choosiness. This could favour males in poor condition that often invest more in attracting females than males in good condition. In sparse vegetation, parasitized males may have a lower reproductive success due to intense male–male competition, careful female choice and high predation rate selecting against parasitized males. The results suggest that eutrophication could alter the fraction of the population that reproduces, which could have long-term evolutionary consequences.