Harmful health effects from lead (Pb) exposure through drinking water have been recognized in the United States since the 1850s. In that era, drinking water contamination by lead pipes was thought to be the main source of human-ingested lead, causing infant mortality, neurological effects, and digestive problems (Troesken, 2006). Lead service lines were the standard in many US cities through the 1950s and were occasionally installed even up to the ban of lead pipe in 1986 (Renner, 2010). As of 1990, 3.3 million lead service lines were estimated to be in service across the United States, and 6.4 million lead connections (e.g., goosenecks) were also acknowledged (Weston & EES, 1990). The actual remaining number of old lead service lines in the United States today is unknown.
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