Retinal biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease and vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID): implication for early diagnosis and prognosis

摘要

Neuropathological changes in AD. a, e β-amyloid immunohistochemistry, antibody 6F/3D, Dako (Denmark), 1:200, hematoxylin counterstaining. b–d Hyperphosphorylated tau immunohistochemistry, antibody AT8 (Invitrogen/Thermo Fisher, USA), 1:100, hematoxylin counterstaining. a Amyloid plaques in the cingulate cortex. β-amyloid deposition around penetrating cortical vessels (asterisks) are shown by arrows. Bar represents 200 μm. b Neurofibrillary tangles (arrows) and abundant neuropil threads in the cingulate cortex in AD. Bar represents 50 μm. c Hippocampal pyramidal neuron with granular positivity in its cytoplasm in initial stage of NFT formation (pre-tangle neuron). Bar represents 50 μm. d Hippocampal pyramidal neuron with granular and filamental positivity in its cytoplasm (arrow) and dystrophic neurites around a senile plaque (empty arrow). Bar represents 50 μm. e Classical β-amyloid plaque in the cingulate cortex with high magnification showing the ring-with-core appearance. Bar represents 50 μm