Rechargeable Aqueous Sodium-Ion Batteries for (Micro)Grid Applications

摘要

Phosphate-Aqueous Solution Interface Reactions: 1. Dissolution of Na and Ti cations & hydrolysis of phosphate groups. 2. Formation of insulating amorphous titanium phosphate layers: Ti(H_2PO_4)_4. 3. Less Ti dissolution by the presence of (SO_4)~(2-) anions. 4. Formation of cap-shape titanium sulfates Ti_2(SO_4)_3 and/or amorphous TiOS precipitate. 5. Increased dissolution of reduced Ti. 6. The amorphous layer results in capacity fade, and the precipitates clog the pores and result in poor electrode utilization.