Participatory research and extension approaches have been accredited as being effective in achieving impact, although success has seldom been demonstrated on a larger scale. Participatory activities are often characterised by intensive guidance processes, which would not always allow for scaling-up. However, to achieve sustainable impact, particularly when dealing with complex environmental issues where farmers have to work collectively, appropriate mechanisms for scaling-up need to be sought. This paper presents a framework for integrative research and development as a tool for planning and evaluation of participatory projects aimed at impact, h is argued that the objectives of an activity, i.e. research versus extension, should be clearly defined. and methods planned accordingly. Basic and applied research carries risk. and should therefore not necessarily be scaled up. Adaptive research, however, call be incorporated in participatory extension programs, in which farmers test and adapt innovation collectively and enhance their experimental skills for further application on their own farms. Appropriate mechanisms for scaling-up as well as key factors in the institutional and/or community setting will have to be identified on a case-by-case basis to enhance the chances of success. Anticipating scaling-up at an early stage of project implementation through the establishment of linkages with potential mechanisms is likely to facilitate accomplishment later.
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