I consider the value (usefulness) as the most important characteristic of a sign. Values exist only in self-reproducing systems which satisfy the criterion of semantic closure. They can be estimated in a linear model of a system as left eigenvector. The value of any relationship among system components is equal to the contribution of this relationship to the overall value of the system. Autocatalytic systems are most primitive signs that are in a permanent process of self-interpretation. Signs are produced only if organisms expect to get a return from this production (increased self-reproduction rate). In the same way, organisms interpret signs only if they expect to increase their value from interpretation. Organisms are investors that distribute their resources into various communication channels and their profit is self-reproduction. Human values depend more on the propagation of life styles (memes) rather than biological reproduction, and selection goes mostly at a sub-organism (mental) levels. In evolution, signs develop a hierarchical structure via metasystem transitions. Two mechanisms of metasystem transitions are possible: multiplication with subsequent cooperation, and symbiosis. Living cells apparently originated from a symbiosis of self-reproducing linear polymers with self-reproducing membrane spheres. Hierarchical systems are integrated via communication of their components. Cooperation is evolutionary stable only in encapsulated systems in which communication is restricted. Value conflicts are resolved in evolution by limitations of neutral variation of components.
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