A mixed ionic-electronic conduction (MIEC) memory cell including a mixed ionic-electronic conductor containing dopants therein, a heater disposed adjacent to the mixed ionic-electronic conductor, a pair of first electrodes electrically connected to the mixed ionic-electronic conductor, and at least one pair of second electrodes electrically connected to the mixed ionic-electronic conductor is provided. The pair of first electrodes drive the dopants in the mixed ionic-electronic conductor to drift along a first direction when the mixed ionic-electronic conductor is heated by the heater. The pair of second electrodes locally modify a distribution of the dopants along a second direction when the mixed ionic-electronic conductor is heated by the heater, and the first direction is different from the second direction.
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