Advance review on the exploitation of the prominent energy-storage element Lithium. Part II: From sea water and spent lithium ion batteries (LIBs)

摘要

The uncertainty in production and utilization with the availability of lithium rich minerals and brine in a limited land area has grown the attention for the exploitation of those resources not coming under a specific boundary. Approximately 230 billion tons of lithium in ubiquitous sea water and generation of a huge amount of used lithium ion batteries (spent LIBs) in different corner of the end-user countries can play a major role to change the scenario of securing lithium as a raw material for industry. Therefore, it needs to be exploited in such an effective manner that it can assure the mitigation of projected supply risk of this energy-critical element. To explore the commercial viability for their sustainable exploitation, it is imperative to review the methodologies that have been investigated and have clear potential for upscaling.