Federalism is sometimes trumpeted as a system that effectively represents citizens at multiple levels. As Lisa Miller reminds us in The Perils ofrnFederalism, it is also a system that can deny adequate representation throughout its layers. Miller focuses on crime policy in the latter part of the twentieth century in an effort to explore the variety and limitations of citizen representation in national, state, and local policy arenas. Her conclusions are sobering: criminal justice agencies and single-issue groups dominate the national and state levels while broad-based citizen groups are virtually absent from the policy process. Though the dynamic is nearly reversed in local legislative settings, the rules of federalism-where higher levels trump lower ones-dictate that problem solving will almost always be less effective and less thorough when confined to local government. Fewer resources are available and potential solutions must exist within a legal and conceptual framework established by state and national players. Thus, local groups exist as an archipelago of interests and typically lack the political and financial resources to connect with one another and, in doing so, enhance their political clout.
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