Colla fortified sites: Warfare and regional power in the late prehispanic Titicaca Basin, Peru.

摘要

This dissertation presents an archaeological investigation of the Colla culture, which emerged in the northern Lake Titicaca Basin of highland Peru in the period just prior to the Inca expansion, ca. AD 1100--1450. Broadly, the dissertation addresses the interplay of endemic violence and sociopolitical change in pre-modern societies. Anthropologists have developed contrasting theoretical models on this topic: a context of warfare is often thought to foster the emergence of institutionalized leadership and large-scale, centralized polities, yet warfare is also seen as a force that Balkanizes regions and hinders political consolidation. Meanwhile, there is much debate about the causes of warfare, particularly in non-state societies.; Ethnohistoric documents describe the Collas as having been one of the strongest of the Incas' rivals, a kingdom or senorio united under a paramount lord. These accounts are contradicted by the archaeological landscape of the region, which was dotted with numerous fortified, hilltop settlements, indicating chronic warfare even in the supposed heartland of Colla territory. Archaeological fieldwork involved the identification of fortified sites or pukaras through air photos, surveying and mapping a number of these sites, and small-scale excavations, along with the analysis of ceramic artifacts, radiocarbon dating of a large number of samples, and a GIS analysis of regional site distribution. These techniques were used to address the geographic extent of Colla polities and Colla group identities.; The results indicate that while fortification and chronic warfare may have provided some opportunities for leaders to gain and maintain power, they also fractured the Colla area and fostered group identities that became entrenched at the sub-regional level. Additionally, and contrary to accepted wisdom, Colla forts were not built immediately after the collapse of the earlier state of Tiwanaku, but after a delay of about two centuries, in an escalation of conflict possibly corresponding to worsening climate conditions.