Described herein are embodiments of systems, method, and computer programs for estimating affective response to a token instance of interest utilizing a predicted affective response to a background token instance. The affective response is computed based on the difference between a measured affective response of the user and the predicted affective response. Where the measured affective response is a measurement of the affective response of the user to a simultaneous exposure to both the background token instance and the token instance of interest.
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