ATP modulates immune cell functions, and ATP derived from gut commensal bacteria promotes the differentiation of T helper 17 (Th17) cells in the intestinal lamina propria. We recently reported that Enterococcus gallinarum, isolated from mice and humans, secretes ATP. We have since found and characterized several ATP-secreting bacteria. Of the tested enterococci, Enterococcus mundtii secreted the greatest amount of ATP (>2 μM/108 cells) after overnight culture. Glucose, not amino acids and vitamins, was essential for ATP secretion from E. mundtii. Analyses of energy-deprived cells demonstrated that glycolysis is the most important pathway for bacterial ATP secretion. Furthermore, exponential-phase E. mundtii and Enterococcus faecalis cells secrete ATP more efficiently than stationary-phase cells. Other bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus, also secrete ATP in exponential but not stationary phase. These results suggest that various gut bacteria, including commensals and pathogens, might secrete ATP at any growth phase and modulate immune cell function.
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