Separating public key encryption from one way functions is one of the fundamental goals of complexity-based cryptography. Beginning with the seminal work of Impagliazzo and Rudich (STOC, 1989), a sequence of works have ruled out certain classes of reductions from public key encryption (PKE)-or even key agreement-to one way function. Unfortunately, known results-so called black-box separations-do not apply to settings where the construction and/or reduction are allowed to directly access the code, or circuit, of the one way function. In this work, we present a meaningful, non-black-box separation between public key encryption (PKE) and one way function. Specifically, we introduce the notion of BBNT reductions (similar to the BBNp reductions of Baecher et al. (ASIACRYPT, 2013)), in which the construction E accesses the underlying primitive in a black-box way, but wherein the universal reduction R receives the efficient code/circuit of the underlying primitive as input and is allowed oracle access to the adversary Adv. We additionally require that the functions describing the number of oracle queries made to Adv, and the success probability of 1R are independent of the run-time/circuit size of the underlying primitive. We prove that there is no non-adaptive, BBN~ reduction from PKE to one way function, under the assumption that certain types of strong one way functions exist. Specifically, we assume that there exists a regular one way function f such that there is no Arthur-Merlin protocol proving that z (￠) Range(f), where soundness holds with high probability over "no instances," y ~ f(U_n), and Arthur may receive polynomial-sized, non-uniform advice. This assumption is related to the average-case analogue of the widely believed assumption coNP (￠) NP/poly.
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