Gold Gilding and Pigment Identification on a Post-Byzantine Icon from Kastoria, Northern Greece

摘要

The investigation of gilded gold, black and red pigments from the Byzantine icon of Panagia from the church of Agioi Anargyroi Gymnasiou in Kastoria, northern Greece is the aim of this study. Small fragments, having a gold leaf finish, were detached from the icon and were analyzed by Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled to Energy Dispersive System (ESEM-EDS) and Raman microscopy. The chemical (EDS) composition of the gilding material revealed a high gold content alloy (Au 81.34 wt%) with trace amounts of silver (Ag 1.66 wt%), copper (Cu 0.62 wt%) and iron (Fe 0.58 wt%). The Raman spectrum of the gold leaf showed characteristic bands at 236, 369, and 468 cm~(-1). The red pigment on the surface comprises of Hg, S, and minor amounts of Pb and is attributed to the minerals cinnabar (HgS) and minium (Pb_3O_4). The black pigment has high carbon content, attributed to organic material (black carbon). The micro-Raman spectroscopy provided a more detailed determination of the composition of the red and black pigments. In particular, the vivid red color was attributed to cinnabar (bands at 253 and 342 cm~(-1)). Particles of black carbon (bands at 1345 and 1577 cm~(-1)) and oxalates (band at 861 cm~(-1)) were determined on the black pigments. Dark regions on the pigmented surface were assigned to a mixture of cinnabar [bands at 253 and 342 cm~(-1)] and minium [bands at 120, 142, 288, and 545 cm~(-1)]. The latter lead oxides might have been used either as a dryer or a burnish agent for the gold leaf. The micro-structural and chemical analysis of several distinct strata of the icon, as observed under ESEM, revealed a red-colored stratum beneath the gold leaf, with an iron aluminosilicate composition. This is the so-called bole (red clay) commonly used as sub-strata for gilding art objects. Multiple layers of white ground material, composed of gesso (gypsum) underlie the bole strata. Moreover, one thin organic binder (animal glue) was is observed within the gesso ground of the icon.