摘要：The putative scrambling in Korean has intrinsic difficulties due to the lack of driving force for the m ovem ent o f constituents. The Case theory, EPP and Focus Feature, etc. does not support the m ovem ent of the scrambled constituent. The radical LF-reconstruction or the LF-lowering also raises serious questions about the semantics of the m oved constituent. This paper claim s that the putative scrambled constituent should be analyzed as a W ord Order Topic, based on the L exicalist Case H ypothesis which says that the case should be defined on the basis of lexical information, and the Hypothesis of Variable M edial Projection w hich says that the number o f medial projections should be matched with the number of arguments of a predicate. As to the so-called Long Distance Scrambling (LDS), the typical cases considered hitherto to be LDS is not a real LDS, because the object in front of the matrix subject is not a constituent o f the embedded clause, but that of the.matrix clause. As to the embedded constituent in front o f the matrix subject, this paper introduces the principles o f Constituent Affiliation Principle which says that a constituent should be in its own clause, or should be construed to be as if it were in its own clause, and Transparent Verb Principle (TVP) which says that a thinking- or saying-verb functions as if it were nonexistent in certain discoursesyntactic contexts. The typical object o f the so-called LDS that appears in the thinking- or saying-verb construction is on a par with that o f the Short Distance Scrambling (SDS) in virtual structure. In virtual structure, the matrix clause can be seen nonexistent by the TVP and the matrix subject can be seen to function as a parenthetical phrase.
摘要：Since 1949, modern Chinese language has, in the course o f its development in China's Mainland, twice witnessed large-scale transfers in its word emotive overtones. The first began in 1949 and went on all the way till the end o f the Cultural Revolution in 1977. Derogation manifested itself in that period, during which the derogatory words enjoyed their greatest number, widest usages and highest frequency in the history o f the Chinese language. The second began from the Reform and Opening Up Policy in 1978 and lasted untill now. De-derogation has manifested itself in this period, during which the derogatory words have had the smallest number, least usages and lowest frequency in the history o f the Chinese language. The two large-scale transfers result from their specific social backgrounds and the development o f the Chinese language itself.
摘要：Sesotho is one of the African Languages where sentence negation is expressed by means of bound negative morphemes. It has only three negative morphemes which arespread across the Sesotho matrix and subordinate clauses. They are the negative morphemes /ha/, /sa/ and /se/.These morphemes are bound verbal morphemes that negate various predicate forms and only appear in restricted sentence types. The central aim of this paper is to examine sentence constructions that realize negation by means of the negative morpheme /sa/ and its syntactic distribution within copulative verbs, non - copulative verbs, deficient verbs and aspect morphemes over a full range of inflectional categories such as tense, aspect and mood. This morpheme will be examined within the general framework of the Minimalist Programme, which holds that inflectional categories occur as heads of phrasal categories. This paper will further illustrate the morphological representations of these morphemes within Beard’s (1995) Lexeme-Morpheme Base Morphology, which defines morphology as the sum of all the phonological means of expressing the relations of constituents in words, of words in phrases and of phrasal constituents in sentences. It distinguishes lexemes from bound morphemes.
摘要：There is a special grammar phenomena in Liangshan Yi such that grammartical relations can be changed through tone change. When personal pronouns combine withverbs, from the view of personal pronouns, the sentences are in SV pattern if personal pronouns are mid-level tones, while the sentences are in OV pattern when personal pronouns are sub-high tones. From the view of verbs, the sentences are in SV pattern if verbs are low-falling tones while the sentences are in OV pattern when verbs are sub-high tones. This paper discusses how case relations can be marked with grammatical tone in the Yi language.
摘要：In the Tungus-Manchu group, the endangerment of Manchu and Hezhe languages has been confirmed in the linguistic circles in China. Today, only aged people insome Manchu and Hezhe villages of Heilon^iang Province speak these two languages. This paper explores and analyzes the reasons for the endangerment of Manchu and Hezhe languages and provides evidence of the general rules of language endangerment. The research shows that social, psychological and linguistic factors work together to endanger the two languages. Their switch and variation modes have jointly endangered themselves, and the gradual and sudden changes in their linguistic systems have played a joint force. This paper is significant as a reference for further research into universal rules for the endangered languages.
摘要：This paper explores how language and culture are intertwined and often regarded as “invariable fixed properties” in contemporary South Africa by focusing on one particular indigenous African language group, i.e. isiZulu-speakers. Drawing from general theoretical sociolinguistic approaches to language and culture and considering South Africa’s socio-political history, the paper demonstrates the significance and saliency of Zulu linguistic culture to Zulu people in the post-apartheid state. It is examined, how Zulu linguistic culture is regarded a resource in the isiZulu-speaking community and as one of the most salient tools of in-group identification in the larger contemporary South African society. Zulu people’s culture is profoundly language-embedded and Zulu linguistic culture often based on essentialism.
摘要：There are too few devices in Samoyedic languages to express a completed/ accomplished action, so one of the ways to do it is just the use of perfect and pluperfect.Samoyedic languages have no common markers for moods and tenses, only a few of them occur in most of the languages mentioned. The Samoyedic system of conjugation is mainly based on verbal nouns, its mood and temporal markers mostly coincide with participle and gerund markers. The Tundra Nenets perfect is formed by means of the participle markers (-m+), the pluperfect - by means of the compound marker (-m i) ... -s. In Enets the marker -bi as indicates an earlier meaning of the perfective participle that has disappeared by now, the pluperfect is formed by means of the compound suffixes -bi (-pi) ... -s (-si). In Nganasan the marker -'V - expresses the past, more exactly the perfective preterit. The perfect has the compound marker -bV (-HV) + -tV (-§V). Both perfect and pluperfect are used widely in the languages under observation, particularly in folkloristic texts. The formation and the use of perfect and pluperfect are mostly similar. As far as the Samoyedicparticiple marker -bV is concernd, then G. J. Ramstedt (1952) refers to the Turkic perfect-gerund marker -p (-yp, -up) and to the Mongol preterit perfect marker -b ai, -bei, -ba。
摘要：Semantic Keys are elements (word-parts) of written language that give an iconic,general representation of the whole word’s meaning. In written Sino-Japanese the “radical”or semantic components play this role. For example, the character meaning 'woman,female’ is the Semantic Key of the character for Ma 'Mama’ (alongside the phonetic component Ma, which means 'horse’ as a separate character). The theory of semantic Keys in both graphic and phonemic aspects is called qTheory or nanosemantics.The most innovative aspect of the present article is the hypothesis that, in languages using alphabetic writing systems, the role of Semantic Key is played by consonants, more specifically the first consonant. Thus, L meaning 'Lif t ’ is the Semantic Key of English L f,Ladle, Lofty, aLps，eLevator，oLympus; Spanish Leva, Lecantarse，aLto，Lengua; Arabic aLLah, and Hebrew? aeL-0aL ‘upto-above’ （the Israeli airline), Polish Lot ‘flight’ （the Polish airline); Hebrew aeL, aeLohim ‘God’， and haLLeluyah ‘praise-ye God’ （using Parallels, 'Lift up God’). Evidence for the universality of the theory is shown by many examples drawn from various languages, including Indo-European Semitic, Chinese and Japanese. The theory reveals hundreds of relationships within and between languages,related and unrelated, that have been “Hiding in Plain Sight”, to mention just one example:the Parallel between Spanish Pan 'bread’ and Mandarin Fan 'rice’.
摘要：This paper is a comprehensive discussion about a few theoretical issues of historical strata analysis, that is, uniformitarianism and neogramarian hypothesis,catastrophism and borrowing, wendu and ba-id^u readings, native stratum, identification of loan strata and native stratum, influence and borrowing, and real time and apparent time.
摘要：This study aims at describing structurally and functionally the pronominal system of the three main dialects of Soqotri, an endangered Modern south Arabian language spoken in the Island of Soqotra, Yemen. A part of the data presented in the study has been taken from my PhD thesis written in 2009. New data were collected from the field in 2012 and added to the study. The Study follows a descriptive method, therefore, showing no argumentation. The study reveals the structure and functions of the Soqotri rich pronominal system. It shows that the three Soqotri dialects (Eastern Soqotri Dialect, Central Soqotri Dialect and Western Soqotri Dialect) have personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronoun, reflexive pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, relative pronouns and interrogative pronouns. It also shows that these pronouns are usually of two types (independent and dependent) inflecting for person, number and gender.
摘要：This article is meant to provide a descriptive account of a noun phrase in the Ezha language. By so doing, no particular theoretical assumption is adhered to; the data analysis is dictated by a purely descriptive perspective. Data for the study were accessed by consulting native speakers through elicitation augmented by recording of spontaneous speech. A noun phrase in Ezha is found out to be built out of a head noun alone or a head noun together with (a) dependent(s). In situations where a noun phrase is made up of a head noun along with dependents, the dependents can be a noun, an adjective, a numeral, a demonstrative and/or a relative clause. The phrase is always head-final.
摘要：Hausa and Bole are two languages from the same phylum i.e. Afro-asiatic. They have some common various linguistic features, most especially phonological and syntactic features. The main purpose of this paper is to come up with one of the phonological aspects of one of the word classes of Hausa and Bole. This means, we will analyse the syllable structure, which is canonical shape of ideophones of both languages using descriptive method of analysis adopted by Newman (2000). In Hausa, likewise in Bole, ideophones are numerous and several of them are commonly used syntactically. But, we will not deal with their syntactical use or function in this paper, what we focus on, is just their canonical shapes i.e. syllable structures. The paper is divided into four sections: sections one and four are introduction and conclusion respectively, while section two is descriptive analysis of canonical shape of Hausa ideophones, and section three, is of Bole ideophones.
摘要：This study investigated the ideological use of linguistics features in online news articles published by The Zimbab^we Herald Onl~^^e newspaper and The Z^^bab^ea^Independent Online newspaper. The data was gathered during the period between 2008 and 2016 where there was media hype regarding the Zimbabwean political and economic instability. During this period in question Zimbabwe has had a constant phase of bad political and economic instability. Therefore, this publication is very crucial as it comes at a moment when Zimbabwe is undergoing its worst political and economic phase in years.Even though Zimbabwe's political situation seems to be unstable, the current government is adamant that the situation will get better before its its next presidential election in 2018. In 2009 the two political parties Zanu- PF and MDC forged a Unity Government, the end of the unity- government triggered power struggles within both Zanu- PF and MDC, which made Zimbabwean politics even more complicated. Consequently, the current study made use of thirty editorial articles ranging between 900 tokens to 1200 tokens. All the files gathered were transferred into text files so that they could be easily transferable into Antconc 3.2.1, which is a concordance software programme used in corpus linguistics to analyze written corpora. The lexical features that were identified in the study were analyzed through the use of Fairclough5s (1989) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) whilst grammatical features such as plurality, person and tense were analyzed through the use of Halliday5s (1985) Systemic Functional Grammar. The findings from this study revealed that journalists of the articles from The Zimbabwe Herald Online newspaper made use of linguistic and grammatical features that were meant to maintain Zanu- PF ideologies whilst corpus from The Zimbabwean Independent Online newspaper revealed the use of linguistic features that favoured the ideologies of the MDC.
摘要：To establish a classification on the basis of genetic linguistics requires two indispensible conditions: common retention, including cognate lexical retention and cognate morphological retention, and common innovation in a language group. The first condition is primary, and is the motivation for classification and the evidence of a genetic relationship. The second condition is secondary and supportive, and is the feature,approach and sign of a language group. This article focuses on common innovations in the Sino-Tibetan language family. Tone, voiceless aspirated stops, affricates, classifiers, noun prefixes for kinship and overlap are six common innovations that are proposed for defining the Sino-Tibetan language family.
摘要：In this paper, the determinacy of regular lexical selectional restrictions is examined from both the internal structures of the single selectional restrictions (i.e.semantic selectional restrictions) and relationship between the structures of several selectional restrictions. Hence, our analysis and description are shifted from casual and indeterminate strings and markers on case basis to determined rules and circumspect dynamic systems, from lexical precepts to knowledge precepts, from the state of memory to rational deduction and rhetorical devices. Further studies indicate that selectional restrictions are intertwined structures, a feature that makes it possible to be one of the bases for lexical selectional restrictions to come into existence. Its related theories are the grarantee for scientific observations of selectional restriction structures.
摘要：This article argues that the theoretical desiderata of Minimalist Program (MP)will actually necessitate, or even force, a high level of sensitivity to cross-linguistic structural variation, at least higher than has been the case in Principles and Parameters Theory. Moreover, this heightened sensitivity to cross-linguistic variation is likely to call into question two fundamental assumptions in Generative Grammar (GG), namely the distinction between competence and performance as well as the objection to the inclusion of performance in linguistic theory. By drawing on word order and, to a lesser extent, case marking (also related ultimately to linearization) for purposes of illustration, the article will explain how GG, as reconfigured in MP, needs Linguistic Typology more than ever, as MP theorists are becoming increasingly aware of the relevance of cross-linguistic variation to their minimalist inquiry. Furthermore, functional motivations or explanations (e.g.performance), typically utilized in LT, are likely to resonate well with the minimalist focus on so-called interface conditions.
摘要：Unlike matrix verbs, the verb in subjunctive complements in Standard Arabic lacks tense; nonetheless, it inflects for agreement and mood. The subject of subjunctive verbs is Case-marked accusative if it surfaces in a preverbal position; and nominative if it appears in a postverbal position. In addition, the subjunctive verb shows agreement asymmetry with its subject, depending on the position of the subject. Subjunctive complements appear in tenseless contexts in this language, i.e. control structures, ECM-like structures, and obviative structures. In this paper, I provide a new analysis for subject-verb agreement asymmetry in these complements and account for the different Case markers that appear on their subject. In particular, I argue that feature-specification on the inflectional head T triggers the verbal agreement asymmetry in subjunctive complements. I also argue that formal features and nominative Case in these complements can be valued by a defective probe. Crucially, I argue that the defective probe can establish agreement and assign nominative Case in-situ, without resorting to A-movement, and the subsequent movement of the embedded subject to a preverbal position is triggered by the EPP feature on the O-complete T. The corollary of this investigation lends support to the assumption that the Case-agreement system in this language is not contingent on tense.
摘要：This paper surveys several linguistic aspects of the varieties of the Omani Arabic dialect (OA). It starts with a discussion of the sociolinguistic situation in Oman and the factors that shaped it, as well as discussing the OA varieties and the languages spoken in the country. This is followed by a presentation of the OA consonant and vowel phonemes and their allophones. The paper also presents phonological aspects such as syllable structure and word stress as well as examples of processes like assimilation and emphasis spreading. Then, it presents the OA personal, demonstrative, possessive, and interrogative pronouns, as well as morphological issues such as subject agreement affixes, verbal forms,passive formation, and pluralization patterns. Next, it presents syntactic patterns including word order, negation, question formation, and relative clauses. Besides the survey, the paper provides examples that reveal similarity between some OA dialects and those of the pre-Islamic era, as evidenced by some of the documented and approved readings of the Holy Qur?an. There is also discussion of some cases of grammaticalization and pronominal copulas.
摘要：Question formation and focusing are two transformational processes attested in Standard Yoruba both of which have been extensively discussed in previous studies.However, very little is known about these concepts in Owo (〇w〇) a south-East Yoruba (Yoruba) dialect. This study examines the concept of questions and focusing in (^)w〇) dialect with a comparison of the processes in Standard Yoruba. The study revealed some differences as well as similarities in the two processes in (J)w^ and standard Yoruba. Just like in Standard Yoruba, question markers in 〇wo normally occur in sentence initial and final positions. However, the question marker de constantly appears sentence medially before and before verbs in certain constructions. Furthermore, while the focus marker in Yoruba normally occurs immediately after the focused item with a stable form, the focus marker in (w o usually occurs at the sentence final position as a reduplicated form of the last syllable of the final item. Also, a pronoun which indicates number and agreement usually occurs immediately after the focused item in (wo. Finally, just like in YorUba,there is a syntactic relationship between question and focusing in (w o dialect.
摘要：The author outlines the matrix and parameters of the forms of basic intonation of Chinese texts, and, based on the traditional Chinese graphic expression Jiugong(nine squares), systematically describes the tonal ranges and various forms of basic intonation. She concludes that if we express the pitch and length of the texts by means of two coordinate axes, and each coordinate axis is divided into three levels, a Jiugong matrix of intonation will be established, and different two-dimensional acoustic features can be found at various points on the Jiugong diagram. The Jiugong matrix of intonation as expoundedin this paper serves as the rules for the combination of intonations and covers all the basic tones of Chinese texts.
摘要：In this paper, linguistic methodology is suggested for approaching figures of speech formed due to shift of cognitive relations. First, requisite features, possible features and impossible features are proposed on the basis of semantic analysis and their interrelationships and expressions are discussed. Then it is further argued that all figures formed due to shift of cognitive relation are expressed to accept an impossible feature; and there are four semantic forms to accept it: “zero distance/distanced”, “implicit/explicit”, “direct/indirect”, “positive/negative”. Finally, starting from the two approaches to figures we comment on the traditional idea of separating decoration and substance and the new idea of “function as form”.
摘要：Language artificially classifies the varied phenomena of the chaotic world into four kinds of expressions: “real displacements”， “real shifts”， “virtual displacements” and “virtual shifts” This paper is mainly a semantic exploration of the “real displacements” and the achievement of the discussion is a foundation for the semantic study of the latter three kinds of expressions. Emphasis will be laid upon the verbs and their relationship with nouns. The “multiple space role-state-ring-chain” model designed in the paper is aimed at delving beneath the surface of a verb and studying its inner micro-world, so as to grasp the transformational rules among the surface, deep and underlying structures of a sentence and to promote the discovery for the mystery of human languages.
摘要：In Chinese language studies, both “The Textual Research on Historical Documents” and “The Comparative Study of Historical Data” are traditional in methodology and they both deserve being treasured, passed on, and further developed. It will certainly do harm to the development of academic research if any of the two methods is given unreasonable priority. The author claims that the best or one of the best methodologies of the historical study of Chinese language is the combination of the two, hence a new interpretation of “The Double-proof Method”. Meanwhile, this essay is also an attempt to put forward “The Law of Quan-ma and Gui-mei” in Chinese language studies, in which the author believes that it is not advisable to either treat Gui-mei as Quan-ma or vice versa in linguistic research. It is crucial for us to respect always the language facts first, which is considered the very soul of linguistics.
摘要：This essay elaborates as thoroughly as possible the theory of internal compensation of the natural language system, and proves that the general distinctive function, which vanishes because of the loss or decrease of one or more sub-systems or units with their distinctive function, will be compensated with the increase of others or something new to guarantee the general balance of the whole system and fulfill the need of communication. By just discussing some phenomena of internal compensation at the phonological level here, this essay reveals some interesting rules and gives new explanations to some phenomena that have not been explained or not explained properly, then prove the theory’s function of explanation.
摘要：From the study of polysemy of coordinate conjunctions, it can be found that there are grammaticalization processes from coordination to transition and from coordination to succession. It is a general evolutionary process in connective structures to go from non-specific semantic relationship to specific semantic relationship. This was caused by the cognitive tendency of approximately substituting typical functions for atypical functions.
摘要：This paper mainly discusses verbal aspects and their syntactic markers in Lhasa Tibetan. Since aspects in Tibetan always share markers with other important categories called evidentiality and egocentricity, the former of which assesses the evidence of speaker's statement and the latter denotes behavioral characteristics of a speaker'sego-centricity, this paper simultaneously describes all three types: aspect, evidentiality and egocentricity. There are nine types of verb aspects in Lhasa Tibetan, namely: Prospective, Imminent, Premediated, Realis, Durative, Resultative, Merely-past, Perfect, and Contextual aspects. There are four types of evidentialities, namely, Self-knowledge, Knowing-by-sight, Knowing-by-newly-found-information and Knowing-by-inference evidentialities. Categories of egocentricity demonstrate whether an action is towards the Self or the Other, whether the speaker gains or loses, and so on. Additionally, this essay also discusses the interactive relationship between syntactical verb aspects and personal pronouns, intentionality, modality, as well as temporal-spatial cognition.
摘要：xiaojie(小姐， miss) is a popular form of address in contemporary Chinese; generally speaking, it is defined as a title for ―unmarried girl. This form has multiple connotations,. Given recent changes in society, some think that, xiaojie (小姐） will become a widely-used form of address, while others think that young females will come to consider the title repulsive. None can have the final say, this is because the synchronic language differences are not only the result of the synchronic change but also possibly its sign. Since synchronic differences could not only be a result of diachronic change but also could herald further change, it is not clear what direction xiaojie (小姐） will take. In the language conflicts, When two language varieties conflict, the more common variety usually influences the less common. A field investigation in large cities throughout China thus allows us not only to draw A Distributional Map of Pragmatic Features of the Title xiaojie(小姐) ,but also enables us to see its diachronic possibilities.
摘要：Middle Chinese is the language used in the period from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty. In recent years researches of Middle Chinese have attracted scholars5 attention. While it inherited some characteristics from the grammar of Ancient Chinese, the morphology and syntax of Middle Chinese underwent obvious elimination and new birth, an important content which laid the foundation for the further evolution of the Early Modem Chinese grammar. Numerous grammatical phenomena started to appear in the Tang and Song Dynasties. The grammar was going through a change in which new formsreplaced old ones, thus being the mediator in inheriting the archaic and beginning the early modem grammar, and therefore occupying an important position in the history of Chinese.
