Most management programs start as a technique or methodology to solve a specific operational problem, such as kanban scheduling to smooth production flow and reduce work in process. As managers gain greater understanding, they extend the scope of application either forward toward the customer or backward toward the supplier. At this point, the program assumes the characteristics of a system. If the program gains sufficient acceptance, it eventually gains the stature of a management philosophy, with all of the accolades pertaining thereto (Vokurka & Davis 1996). The progression described is ideal, and only a few programs—such as Just-in-Time (JIT) and total quality management (TQM)—have achieved such distinction.
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