The cranial and extra-cranial venous components are complex and historically under-represented part of the cerebral vascular system. However, recent development of non-invasive and reproducible venous-based ultrasound and MRI methodologies, together with the increasing availability of advanced MRI sequences suited for better evaluation of the venous system, have contributed towards greater clinical awareness and diagnosis of both intra- and extra-cranial venous pathology ( - ). Such venous abnormalities, classified as either intra- or extra-luminal defects, have been previously associated with multiple central nervous system (CNS) entities including idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH), Parkinson’s disease, Meniere disease, multiple sclerosis, chronic migraine, transient global amnesia and headache ( - ). A step toward standardization of imaging protocols for the more accurate investigation and diagnosis of the extra-cranial venous pathology has been recently advanced by the International Society for Neurovascular Disease (ISVND) ( ).
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