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  • 1.

    【2hr】Cognitive ecology of pollinators and the main determinants of foraging plasticity

    包量

    机译 授粉媒介的认知生态学和觅食可塑性的主要决定因素
    摘要：
  • 2.

    【2hr】Reconsidering sex differences during place learning in túngara frogs

    包量

    机译 在土加拉青蛙的地方学习中重新考虑性别差异
    摘要：In túngara frogs, female mate choice requires remembering the location and/or calls of preferred males who advertise from fixed positions within a breeding pond. A previous study found that, when solving a place discrimination task in the laboratory, female túngara frogs were able to learn a visual cue to solve the task, whereas males were not. In that task, male performance appeared to be inhibited, in part, by their attempt to use egocentric cues. We tested whether the sex difference in place learning previously reported would generalize to other training parameters with different cues available by eliminating the potential to use egocentric cues and increasing the number of trials per day. As before, frogs were given a choice between a red or yellow door, one of which led to shelters and return to their home cage. In the current testing conditions, we detected a preference for the red door; thus, we only considered frogs rewarded to the yellow door. Training was associated with an increase in correct choices and an increased preference for the yellow door. However, there was no evidence for a sex difference in learning. In summary, under the current training conditions, we found that the apparent female advantage in place learning was no longer evident. Future studies that investigate sex differences in cue preference and/or ability to switch among cues will further illuminate the conditions under which sex differences in learning are manifest in túngara frogs.
  • 3.

    【2hr】(Under)water love—linking mate choice and cognition in fish and frogs

    包量

    机译 （水下）爱—将伴侣选择和对鱼和青蛙的认知联系起来
    摘要：
  • 4.

    【2hr】Bumblebees adjust protein and lipid collection rules to the presence of brood

    包量

    机译 大黄蜂调整蛋白质和脂质收集规则以适应育雏的存在
    摘要：Animals have evolved foraging strategies to acquire blends of nutrients that maximize fitness traits. In social insects, nutrient regulation is complicated by the fact that few individuals, the foragers, must address the divergent nutritional needs of all colony members simultaneously, including other workers, the reproductives, and the brood. Here we used 3D nutritional geometry design to examine how bumblebee workers regulate their collection of 3 major macronutrients in the presence and absence of brood. We provided small colonies artificial nectars (liquid diets) and pollens (solid diets) varying in their compositions of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates during 2 weeks. Colonies given a choice between nutritionally complementary diets self-selected foods to reach a target ratio of 71% proteins, 6% carbohydrates, and 23% lipids, irrespective of the presence of brood. When confined to a single nutritionally imbalanced solid diet, colonies without brood regulated lipid collection and over-collected protein relative to this target ratio, whereas colonies with brood regulated both lipid and protein collection. This brood effect on the regulation of nutrient collection by workers suggests that protein levels are critical for larval development. Our results highlight the importance of considering bee nutrition as a multidimensional phenomenon to better assess the effects of environmental impoverishment and malnutrition on population declines.
  • 5.

    【2hr】Sex differences in color discrimination and serial reversal learning in mollies and guppies

    包量

    机译 性别差异在软体动物和孔雀鱼的颜色识别和系列逆向学习中
    摘要：Behavioral flexibility provides an individual with the ability to adapt its behavior in response to environmental changes. Studies on mammals, birds, and teleosts indicate greater behavioral flexibility in females. Conversely, males appear to exhibit greater behavioral persistence. We, therefore, investigated sex differences in behavioral flexibility in 2 closely related molly species (Poecilia latipinna, P. mexicana) and their more distant relative, the guppy P. reticulata by comparing male and female individuals in a serial, visual reversal learning task. Fish were first trained in color discrimination, which was quickly learned by all females (guppies and mollies) and all molly males alike. Despite continued training over more than 72 sessions, male guppies did not learn the general test procedure and were, therefore, excluded from further testing. Once the reward contingency was reversed serially, molly males of both species performed considerably better by inhibiting their previous response and reached the learning criterion significantly faster than their respective conspecific females. Moreover, Atlantic molly males clearly outperformed all other individuals (males and females) and some of them even reached the level of 1-trial learning. Thus, the apparently universal pattern of higher female behavioral flexibility seems to be inverted in the 2 examined molly species, although the evolutionary account of this pattern remains highly speculative. These findings were complemented by the observed lower neophobia of female sailfin mollies compared with their male conspecifics. This sex difference was not observed in Atlantic mollies that were observed to be significantly less distressed in a novel situation than their consexuals. Hypothetically, sex differences in behavioral flexibility can possibly be explained in terms of the different roles that males and females play in mating competition, mate choice, and reproduction or, more generally, in complex social interactions. Each of these characteristics clearly differed between the closely related mollies and the more distantly related guppies.
  • 6.

    【2hr】Sex differences in cognition and their relationship to male mate choice

    包量

    机译 认知中的性别差异及其与男性伴侣选择的关系
    摘要：Male cognition has gained recognition as an important potential player in sexual selection. A number of studies have found positive correlations between male sexual signals and cognitive performance and/or female preferences for males with better cognitive performance, although other studies have not found these relationships. Sex roles can differ dramatically, and sex differences in selection on cognition likely follow from the different tasks associated with these sex roles. Here, using threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus, a species with clearly divergent sex roles and mutual mate choice, we focus on the cognitive trait inhibitory control because males must differentially respond to reproductive females versus other sticklebacks while defending territories and refrain from eating eggs and fry while performing paternal care. We presented fish with a detour task four times over a period of 7 days, allowing us to assess initial inhibitory control and improvement over time. We ask 1) whether there are sex differences in inhibitory control and 2) whether male mate choice is associated with female inhibitory control. Although males outperformed females on three different measures of detour task performance across four trials, these differences were largely explained by males being less neophobic than females. Females took more trials to successfully solve the detour task, even after accounting for sex differences in neophobia. Female cognitive abilities, however, were unrelated to the vigor with which males courted them. The equivocal results regarding sex differences in cognitive ability suggest further study given the very different selection pressures each sex experiences.
  • 7.

    【2hr】Sonicating bees demonstrate flexible pollen extraction without instrumental learning

    包量

    机译 超声蜜蜂演示无需工具学习即可灵活提取花粉
    摘要：Pollen collection is necessary for bee survival and important for flowering plant reproduction, yet if and how pollen extraction motor routines are modified with experience is largely unknown. Here, we used an automated reward and monitoring system to evaluate modification in a common pollen-extraction routine, floral sonication. Through a series of laboratory experiments with the bumblebee, Bombus impatiens, we examined whether variation in sonication frequency and acceleration is due to instrumental learning based on rewards, a fixed behavioral response to rewards, and/or a mechanical constraint. We first investigated whether bees could learn to adjust their sonication frequency in response to pollen rewards given only for specified frequency ranges and found no evidence of instrumental learning. However, we found that absence versus receipt of a pollen reward did lead to a predictable behavioral response, which depended on bee size. Finally, we found some evidence of mechanical constraints, in that flower mass affected sonication acceleration (but not frequency) through an interaction with bee size. In general, larger bees showed more flexibility in sonication frequency and acceleration, potentially reflecting a size-based constraint on the range over which smaller bees can modify frequency and acceleration. Overall, our results show that although bees did not display instrumental learning of sonication frequency, their sonication motor routine is nevertheless flexible.
  • 8.

    【2hr】Mate assessment behavior is correlated to learning ability in female threespine sticklebacks

    包量

    机译 伴侣评估行为与女性三脊椎棘背鱼的学习能力相关
    摘要：In many species, males signal quality with elaborate traits, but females often show inter-individual variation in preference for these traits. Choosing a mate requires multiple cognitive steps; therefore, cognitive style (how an individual processes information) likely influences the perception of sexual signals and ability to choose a high-quality mate. An important component of cognitive style is flexibility; cognitively flexible individuals are more perceptive to shifts in cues. We hypothesized that cognitively flexible individuals would acquire more information about potential mates, better discern between two quality-signaling traits, and thus be more discriminatory. Here, we show that mate assessment is correlated to other cognitive traits. Although we did not detect an effect of cognitive style on mate preference or discrimination, we found that female threespine sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus that spent more time assessing potential mates (more responsive) in a dichotomous mate choice task reached both the initial and reversal learning criterion in a spatial learning task with fewer errors. However, these highly responsive females made more consecutive mistakes immediately at the beginning of the reversal phase, suggesting that they did not quickly adapt to the environmental change but instead rapidly formed strict routines during the learning task that were eventually reversible after repeated errors. Furthermore, we found evidence for condition-dependent mate preference, with larger females preferring the high-quality male. These are among the first results that illustrate how cognitive traits might influence mate choice, which has implications for the strength and direction of sexual selection.
  • 9.

    【2hr】Psychophysics of the hoverfly: categorical or continuous color discrimination?

    包量

    机译 Hoverfly的心理物理学：分类还是连续的颜色歧视？
    摘要：There is increasing interest in flies as potentially important pollinators. Flies are known to have a complex visual system, including 4 spectral classes of photoreceptors that contribute to the perception of color. Our current understanding of how color signals are perceived by flies is based on data for the blowfly Lucilia sp., which after being conditioned to rewarded monochromatic light stimuli, showed evidence of a categorical color visual system. The resulting opponent fly color space has 4 distinct categories, and has been used to interpret how some fly pollinators may perceive flower colors. However, formal proof that flower flies (Syrphidae) only use a simple, categorical color process remains outstanding. In free-flying experiments, we tested the hoverfly Eristalis tenax, a Batesian mimic of the honeybee, that receives its nutrition by visiting flowers. Using a range of broadband similar–dissimilar color stimuli previously used to test color perception in pollinating hymenopteran species, we evaluated if there are steep changes in behavioral choices with continuously increasing color differences as might be expected by categorical color processing. Our data revealed that color choices by the hoverfly are mediated by a continuous monotonic function. Thus, these flies did not use a categorical processing, but showed evidence of a color discrimination function similar to that observed in several bee species. We therefore empirically provide data for the minimum color distance that can be discriminated by hoverflies in fly color space, enabling an improved understanding of plant–pollinator interactions with a non-model insect species.
  • 10.

    【2hr】Flight initiation distance, color and camouflage

    包量

    机译 飞行起始距离，颜色和迷彩
    摘要：Camouflage is widespread throughout the animal kingdom allowing individuals to avoid detection and hence save time and energy rather than escape from an approaching predator. Thus, camouflage is likely to have co-evolved with antipredator behavior. Here, we propose that camouflage results in dichotomous escape behavior within and among species with classes of individuals and species with cryptic coloration having shorter flight initiation distances (FIDs; the distance at which an individual takes flight when approached by a human). We report the results of 2 tests of this hypothesis. First, bird species with cryptically colored plumage have consistently shorter FID than closely related species without such color. Within species with sexually dimorphic plumage, brightly colored adult male common pheasants Phasianus colchicus and golden pheasants Chrysolophus pictus have long and variable FID, whereas cryptically colored juveniles and adult females have short and invariable FID. Second, FID in females was predicted by presence or absence of cryptic color, FID in males and their interaction. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that risk-taking behavior has been attuned to camouflage, and that species with different levels of camouflage differ consistently in their FID.
  • 11.

    【2hr】Predator-induced changes of male and female mating preferences: innate and learned components

    包量

    机译 捕食者引起的雄性和雌性交配偏好的变化：先天和后天的组成部分
    摘要：While many mating preferences have a genetic basis, the question remains as to whether and how learning/experience can modify individual mate choice decisions. We used wild-caught (predator-experienced) and F1 laboratory-reared (predator-naïve) invasive Western mosquitofish Gambusia affinis from China to test whether mating preferences (assessed in a first mate choice test) would change under immediate predation threat. The same individuals were tested in a second mate choice test during which 1 of 3 types of animated predators was presented: 1) a co-occurring predator, 2) a co-evolved but not currently co-occurring predator, and 3) a non-piscivorous species as control. We compared preference scores derived from both mate choice tests to separate innate from experiential effects of predation. We also asked whether predator-induced changes in mating preferences would differ between sexes or depend on the choosing individual’s personality type and/or body size. Wild-caught fish altered their mate choice decisions most when exposed to the co-occurring predator whereas laboratory-reared individuals responded most to the co-evolved predator, suggesting that both innate mechanisms and learning effects are involved. This behavior likely reduces individuals’ risk of falling victim to predation by temporarily moving away from high-quality (i.e., conspicuous) mating partners. Accordingly, effects were stronger in bolder than shyer, large- compared with small-bodied, and female compared with male focal individuals, likely because those phenotypes face an increased predation risk overall. Our study adds to the growing body of literature appreciating the complexity of the mate choice process, where an array of intrinsic and extrinsic factors interacts during decision-making.
  • 12.

    【2hr】Role of conspecifics and personal experience on behavioral avoidance of contaminated flowers by bumblebees

    包量

    机译 物种和个人经验在大黄蜂行为规避花中的作用
    摘要：Pollinators use multiple cues whilst foraging including direct cues from flowers and indirect cues from other pollinators. The use of indirect social cues is common in social insects, such as honeybees and bumblebees, where a social environment facilitates the ability to use such cues. Bumblebees use cues to forage on flowers according to previous foraging experiences. Flowers are an essential food source for pollinators but also pose a high risk of parasite infection through the shared use of flowers leading to parasite spillover. Nevertheless, bumblebees have evolved behavioral defense mechanisms to limit parasite infection by avoiding contaminated flowers. Mechanisms underlying the avoidance of contaminated flowers by bumblebees are poorly understood. Bumblebees were recorded having the choice to forage on non-contaminated flowers and flowers contaminated by a trypan osome gut parasite, Crithidia bombi. The use of different treatments with presence or absence of conspecifics on both contaminated and non-contaminated flowers allowed to investigate the role of social visual cues on their pathogen avoidance behavior. Bumblebees are expected to use social visual cues to avoid contaminated flowers. Our study reveals that the presence of a conspecific on flowers either contaminated or not does not help bumblebee foragers avoiding contaminated flowers. Nevertheless, bumblebees whereas gaining experience tend to avoid their conspecific when placed on contaminated flower and copy it when on the non-contaminated flower. Our experiment suggests a detrimental impact of floral scent on disease avoidance behavior.
  • 13.

    【2hr】Honeybees prefer novel insect-pollinated flower shapes over bird-pollinated flower shapes

    包量

    机译 蜜蜂更喜欢新颖的昆虫授粉花形而不是鸟类授粉花形
    摘要：Plant–pollinator interactions have a fundamental influence on flower evolution. Flower color signals are frequently tuned to the visual capabilities of important pollinators such as either bees or birds, but far less is known about whether flower shape influences the choices of pollinators. We tested European honeybee Apis mellifera preferences using novel achromatic (gray-scale) images of 12 insect-pollinated and 12 bird-pollinated native Australian flowers in Germany; thus, avoiding influences of color, odor, or prior experience. Independent bees were tested with a number of parameterized images specifically designed to assess preferences for size, shape, brightness, or the number of flower-like shapes present in an image. We show that honeybees have a preference for visiting images of insect-pollinated flowers and such a preference is most-likely mediated by holistic information rather than by individual image parameters. Our results indicate angiosperms have evolved flower shapes which influence the choice behavior of important pollinators, and thus suggest spatial achromatic flower properties are an important part of visual signaling for plant–pollinator interactions.
  • 14.

    【2hr】Signal or cue: the role of structural colors in flower pollination

    包量

    机译 信号或提示：结构颜色在花授粉中的作用
    摘要：Angle dependent colors, such as iridescence, are produced by structures present on flower petals changing their visual appearance. These colors have been proposed to act as signals for plant–insect communication. However, there is a paucity of behavioral data to allow for interpretations of how to classify these colors either as a signal or a cue when considering the natural conditions under which pollination occurs. We sampled flowers from 6 plant species across various viewpoints looking for changes in the visual appearance of the petals. Spectral characteristics were measured with different instruments to simulate both the spectral and spatial characteristics of honeybee’s vision. We show the presence of color patches produced by angle dependent effects on the petals and the calyx of various species; however, the appearance of the angle dependent color patches significantly varies with viewpoint and would only be resolved by the insect eye at close distances. Behavior experiments with honeybees revealed that pollinators did not use angle dependent colors to drive behavior when presented with novel flower presentations. Results show that angle dependent colors do not comply with the requirements of a signal for plant–pollinator communication since the information transmitted by these colors would be unreliable for potential, free-flying pollination vectors. We thus classify angle dependent colors produced by micro- and ultra-structures as being a cue (a feature which has not evolved for communication), and observe no evidence supporting claims of these angle dependent colors having evolved as visual signal.
  • 15.

    【2hr】Behavioral and neural auditory thresholds in a frog

    包量

    机译 青蛙的行为和神经听觉阈值
    摘要：Vocalizations play a critical role in mate recognition and mate choice in a number of taxa, especially, but not limited to, orthopterans, frogs, and birds. But receivers can only recognize and prefer sounds that they can hear. Thus a fundamental question linking neurobiology and sexual selection asks—what is the threshold for detecting acoustic sexual displays? In this study, we use 3 methods to assess such thresholds in túngara frogs: behavioral responses, auditory brainstem responses, and multiunit electrophysiological recordings from the midbrain. We show that thresholds are lowest for multiunit recordings (ca. 45 dB SPL), and then for behavioral responses (ca. 61 dB SPL), with auditory brainstem responses exhibiting the highest thresholds (ca. 71 dB SPL). We discuss why these estimates differ and why, as with other studies, it is unlikely that they should be the same. Although all of these studies estimate thresholds they are not measuring the same thresholds; behavioral thresholds are based on signal salience whereas the 2 neural assays estimate physiological thresholds. All 3 estimates, however, make it clear that to have an appreciation for detection and salience of acoustic signals we must listen to those signals through the ears of the receivers.
  • 16.

    【2hr】Ontogenetic shifts in perceptions of safety along structural complexity gradients in a territorial damselfish

    包量

    机译 在区域雀鲷中沿着结构复杂性梯度对安全性认识的本体转变。
    摘要：Age and body size can influence predation risk and hence habitat use. Many species undergo ontogenetic shifts in habitat use as individuals grow larger and have different age-specific predation pressures. On coral reefs, a number of fish species are more tolerant of threats in structurally complex habitats that contain more refuges than in less structurally complex habitats. However, we do not know how risk perception varies with age, and whether age interacts with habitat complexity. Adults and juveniles, because of their size, may face different risks in structurally simple versus complex habitats. We used flight initiation distance as a metric to analyze perceptions of risk in a species of damselfish Stegastes nigricans. All else being equal, fish fleeing at greater distances are inferred to perceive higher risk. We targeted juvenile and adult damselfish to assess whether there are ontogenetic shifts in perceptions of safety in relation to structural complexity, inferred based on percent coral cover and rugosity. We found that adult damselfish tolerated closer approach in more complex habitats as measured by percent coral cover, but not rugosity, whereas juvenile fish always allowed closer approach than adult fish regardless of complexity. This ontogenetic shift in habitat use may result from juvenile fish taking bigger risks to maximize growth, whereas older animals, who are closer to their maximum body size, can afford to take fewer risks and protect their assets.
  • 17.

    【2hr】Anuran forelimb muscle tendinous structures and their relationship with locomotor modes and habitat use

    包量

    机译 无肢前肢肌腱结构及其与运动方式和栖息地利用的关系
    摘要：The interaction between organisms and their environment is central in functional morphology. Differences in habitat usage may imply divergent morphology of locomotor systems; thus, detecting which morphological traits are conservative across lineages and which ones vary under environmental pressure is important in evolutionary studies. We studied internal and external morphology in 28 species of Neotropical anurans. Our aim was to determine if internal morphology (muscle and tendons) shows lower phylogenetic signal than external morphology. In addition, we wanted to know if morphology varies in relation to the habitat use and if there are different functional groups. We found differences in the degree of phylogenetic signal on the groups of traits. Interestingly, postaxial regions of the forelimb are evolutionarily more labile than the preaxial regions. Phylomorphospace plots show that arboreal (jumpers and graspers) and swimmer frogs cluster based on length of fingers and the lack of sesamoid, also reflected by the use of habitat. These functional clusters are also related to phylogeny. Sesamoid and flexor plate dimensions together with digit tendons showed to be important to discriminate functional groups as well as use of habitat classification. Our results allow us to identify a “grasping syndrome” in the hand of these frogs, where palmar sesamoid and flexor plate are absent and a third metacarpal with a bony knob are typical. Thus, a lighter skeleton, long fingers and a prensile hand may be key for arboreality.
  • 18.

    【2hr】Push and pull factors driving movement in a social mammal: context dependent behavioral plasticity at the landscape scale

    包量

    机译 推动和推动社交哺乳动物运动的因素：景观范围内与情境相关的行为可塑性
    摘要：Understanding how key parameters (e.g., density, range-size, and configuration) can affect animal movement remains a major goal of population ecology. This is particularly important for wildlife disease hosts, such as the European badger Meles meles, a reservoir of Mycobacterium bovis. Here we show how movements of 463 individuals among 223 inferred group territories across 755 km2 in Ireland were affected by sex, age, past-movement history, group composition, and group size index from 2009 to 2012. Females exhibited a greater probability of moving into groups with a male-biased composition, but male movements into groups were not associated with group composition. Male badgers were, however, more likely to make visits into territories than females. Animals that had immigrated into a territory previously were more likely to emigrate in the future. Animals exhibiting such “itinerant” movement patterns were more likely to belong to younger age classes. Inter-territorial movement propensity was negatively associated with group size, indicating that larger groups were more stable and less attractive (or permeable) to immigrants. Across the landscape, there was substantial variation in inferred territory-size and movement dynamics, which was related to group size. This represents behavioral plasticity previously only reported at the scale of the species’ biogeographical range. Our results highlight how a “one-size-fits-all” explanation of badger movement is likely to fail under varying ecological contexts and scales, with implications for bovine tuberculosis management.
  • 19.

    【2hr】Rhythm and synchrony in animal movement and communication

    包量

    机译 动物运动与交流的节奏与同步
    摘要：
  • 20.

    【2hr】Relatedness and spatial distance modulate intergroup interactions: experimental evidence from a social rodent

    包量

    机译 相关性和空间距离调节群体间的相互作用：社交啮齿动物的实验证据
    摘要：Kin selection theory predicts that individuals should generally behave less aggressively or more amicably towards relatives than nonkin. However, how individuals treat conspecifics depends on genetic relatedness but also on the ecological context, which influences the benefits and costs of their interactions. In this study, we used microsatellite DNA markers and behavioral tests to examine the influence of kinship and proximity on the social behavior of Mongolian gerbils Meriones unguiculatus living in different social groups, and whether these effects varied with sex and season. We recorded the duration of 4 behavioral categories (investigative, neutral, amicable, and agonistic) during a 10-min pairwise test. We found that genetic relatedness had significant effects on the duration of investigative, neutral, and amicable behavior, but not on agonistic behavior. We also found significant interaction effects of relatedness and distance between burrow systems (i.e., spatial distance) on investigative, neutral, and amicable behavior, which suggests that the effects of kinship on social behavior were restricted by spatial proximity. The interaction effect between sex and relatedness on amicable behavior showed that male gerbils became more intimate with individuals of the same sex that had higher pairwise relatedness than females. Furthermore, both male and female gerbils enhanced their aggression during the food-hoarding season, but the intensity of these changes was significantly higher in females. Overall, our results suggest that the effects of kinship and spatial proximity on social behavior exhibit sexual or seasonal patterns, thereby implying ecological context-dependent responses to out-group individuals in Mongolian gerbils.
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