The role of silver ore reduction in Tiwanaku state expansion into Puno Bay, Peru.

摘要

Comparative studies of archaic state formation have identified several commonalities in the archaic state expansion process. These include the formalization of military power, increased division of labor, economic intensification, elaboration of the prestige economy, the creation of complex ritual and religious systems, population nucleation, and intensive monumental constructions. Expanding archaic states tend to move first to control roads and strategic locations. The result is a discontinuous patchwork pattern of territorial control where critical resources are controlled within an otherwise unconquered landscape.;The research reported here focuses on the first state in the south central Andes---Tiwanaku (circa AD 550--1100). The cross-cultural patterns found for archaic states are also seen during the Tiwanaku period across the southern Andes. The study area is known as the Puno Bay, a large and rich region in the northwest side of Lake Titicaca. The Puno Bay enclave is one of the most prominent Tiwanaku settlements of the northern basin. The semi-isolation of this settlement cluster thus identifies it as a strategically important location for the Tiwanaku state.;The current study uses archaeological methods interpreted through a political economy theoretical framework. Field methods included full-regional coverage survey and small-scale excavations at several sites. Collected artifacts were analyzed to address questions of material acquisition, technology, chronology, and cultural affiliation. Materials and sites were further evaluated using radiocarbon (C-14), thermoluminescence (TL), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and geographic information systems (GIS) techniques.;The results highlight the prestige economy of this archaic state. The data indicate that the extraction of silver (and other minerals) was a leading factor in Tiwanaku settlement of Puno. Excavations at the site of Huajje revealed evidence of silver-lead refining, or ore reduction, in contexts predating the Tiwanaku state. The assemblage reported here represents physical evidence for the independent parallel evolution of silver-lead cupellation-related technologies in the indigenous Andes.;Tiwanaku sites were not widely distributed across the study area, in contrast to all other periods. Instead the Tiwanaku presence was found primarily along the bay, at critical resource zones, and in areas of earlier complex settlements. The results demonstrate that multiple objectives were achieved through the acquisition of Puno, with the presence of precious metal and labor skilled in its extraction serving as strong incentives for colonization by the state.