Self-enhancement, self-affirmation and threats to self-worth: Three tests of a motivational explanation for first- and third-person effects.

摘要

Under the self-enhancement explanation for third-person effects, it is presumed that thinking of oneself as resistant to undesirable media messages, and/or thinking of others as vulnerable, helps to maintain or enhance one's self-esteem. A similar argument for first-person effects is that it is self-enhancing to think of oneself as receptive---and/or others as resistant---to desirable media messages. Research on self-affirmation theory shows that threats to self-worth amplify the need to protect self-esteem, while affirming a valued aspect of the self can reduce the need for further self-enhancement. This suggests a set of tests. Study One manipulated self-threat with two versions of a reasoning test, then measured perceived effects of desirable and undesirable media messages on self and others. Third-person effects for undesirable messages did not vary by threat condition (a ceiling effect was suggested) or by self-esteem, although those high in self-esteem perceived smaller effects on themselves and others than those low in self-esteem. First-person effects for desirable messages were smaller among those whose self-worth was threatened, contrary to expectations, mainly due to smaller perceived effects on self. The finding suggests more than one basis for self-enhancement. Study Two manipulated self-affirmation by having subjects write about a value that was important or unimportant to them. As hypothesized, third-person effects were smaller among those whose self-worth was affirmed, mainly due to greater perceived effects on self. First-person effects did not vary by affirmation condition. Study Three used an order manipulation to determine if answering media effects questions increased state self-esteem (SSE). Those who were asked about effects of desirable messages first had higher SSE than those whose SSE was measured first, but there was no such difference for those asked about undesirable messages. There was no relationship between SSE and the size of first- or third-person effects. Across the three studies, perceived effects of desirable youth-targeted messages on fellow students were smaller than on the public, apparently contradicting the target corollary. Overall results suggest self-enhancement influences first- and third-person effects through effects on self. Explanations for anomalous findings and directions for future research are offered.